None.

Total: 13 (2.3~13 years)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): 13 (2.3~13 years)

Typical Controls (TC): 0

None.

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Children with ASD received a diagnosis based on scores from the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) and/or the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS), and expert clinical judgment according to DSM-IV or DSM-5 criteria. Children with ASD-related medical conditions (e.g., Fragile-X syndrome, tuberous sclerosis), and other neurological conditions (e.g., epilepsy, Tourette's Syndrome) were excluded.

Assessments and Procedures

Recruitment

See above. All participants/parents signed written consent/assent approved by the Institutional Review Board of the First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Additional Questionnaires/Interviews

Participants underwent a battery of behavioral assessments including (1) Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, Revised, with Follow-Up (M-CHAT-R/F); (2) Autism Behavior Checklist (ABC); (3) Asperger Syndrome/High-functioning autism Child Screening Scale (AS/HF).

Medication Information Information regarding current psychoactive medication was collected at the initial screening. We did not ask participants to withhold any medication use prior to scan. Medication status at the time (day) of scanning was not recorded.

We did not use any mock scan or additional preparation beyond standard written and verbal description at time of consent/assent, as well as verbal instructions prior to scan session. During MRI scanning, children with ASD were sedated using 50 mg/kg chloral hydrate. Chloral hydrate is conventionally used as a sedative and hypnotic pharmaceutical drug, which has a long history of safety and availability in infants and is used frequently for pediatric electroencephalography sedation. Sedation was performed by a trained and certified nurse following the guidelines and protocols established by the Radiology Sedation Committee of the hospital. Both a caregiver and a doctor were present for each participant during the scan.

All participants conducted MRI scans at the Department of MRI of the First Affiliated Hospital of USTC by using a Siemens Trio 3.0 T superconducting MRI scanner with an 8-channel head coil was adopted to acquire data. Anatomical T1 weighted images were acquired using 3D magnetization-prepared rapid gradient-echo sequence, repetition time/echo time (TR/TE) = 876/18 ms, slice thickness = 1.0 mm, slice number = 176, matrix = 224 × 256, FOV = 240 mm × 240 mm, flip angle = 20°.

Guifeng Xu

None

Humanity and Social Science Foundation of Ministry of Education of China [grant number 24YJC190046 -WHZ]

Total: 29 (5~10 years)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): 29 (5~10 years)

Typical Controls (TC): 0

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Participants were considered eligible if they were diagnosed with ASD according to the Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-V) and their diagnosis was confirmed with ADOS-2, which includes social affect and restricted and repetitive behaviors subscales.

Typical Controls (TC)

None.

Assessments and Procedures

Recruitment

A group of 29 children diagnosed with ASD was recruited who were scanned in Chengdu Maternal and Children’s Central Hospital (CMCCH). All participants/parents signed written consent/assent approved by the Institutional Review Board of the University of Electronic Science and Technology of China and conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Estimated IQ

Estimates of intelligence for ASD was obtained by using Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence.

Additional Questionnaires/Interviews

Participants underwent a battery of behavioral assessments including (1) Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS); (2) Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ) (3) Social Responsiveness Scale-2 (SRS-2); (4) Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS).

Medication Information

Information regarding current psychoactive medication was collected at the initial screening. We did not ask participants to withhold any medication use prior to scan. Medication status at the time (day) of scanning was not recorded.

All participants conducted MRI scans at Chengdu Maternal and Children’s Central Hospital (CMCCH) by using a 3T Philips Ingenia scanner.

An anatomical T1-weighted image was acquired with a sagittal 3D Turbo Field Echo (TFE) sequence: repetition time (TR) = 8.35 ms, echo time (TE) = 3.85 ms, flip angle (FA) = 8°, field of view (FOV) = 512 × 512 mm2 and voxel size = 1 × 1 × 1 mm3.

The rs-fMRI data were acquired with eyes closed using a 2D echo planar imaging (EPI) sequence with the following parameters: TR = 2000 ms, TE = 30 ms, FA = 77°, FOV = 128 × 128 mm2, matrix size = 62 × 62, voxel size = 3.5 × 3.5 × 3.5 mm3, and 220 axial slices.

Diffusion MRI data were acquired with 2D spinecho EPI (SE-EPI) sequence: TR = 9298.37 ms, TE = 83.529 ms, FOV = 128 × 128 mm2, voxel size = 2 × 2 × 2 mm3, 70 contiguous axial slices, 32 non-collinear gradient directions with a b value of 1000 s/mm2 and one additional null image (b = 0 s/mm2) as reference images.

Weihua Zhao

Total: 83+95 (2~20 years)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): 83 (2~20 years)

Typical Controls (TC): 95

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Children with ASD received a diagnosis based on scores from the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) and/or the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS), and expert clinical judgment according to DSM-IV or DSM-5 criteria. Children with ASD-related medical conditions (e.g., Fragile-X syndrome, tuberous sclerosis), and other neurological conditions (e.g., epilepsy, Tourette's Syndrome) were excluded.

Typical Controls (TC)

Participants were recruited in the Guangzhou, Guangdong through advertisements. Typically developing children were screened and excluded if they or a first-degree relative had developmental, language, learning, neurological, psychiatric disorders, or psychiatric medication usage, or if the child met the clinical criteria for a childhood disorder on the Child Symptom Inventory-Fourth Edition or Child and Adolescent Symptom Inventory.

Assessments and Procedures

Recruitment

Participants were recruited in the Guangzhou, Guangdong through advertisements. All participants/parents signed written consent/assent approved by the Institutional Review Board of Guangzhou Women and Children‘s Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University and conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Estimated IQ

Estimates of intelligence for ASD was obtained by using the subtests of the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence.

Additional Questionnaires/Interviews

Participants underwent a battery of behavioral assessments including (1) Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist (ATEC) (2) Autism Behavior Checklist (ABC) (3) Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) (4) Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) (5) Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS).

Medication Information

Information regarding current psychoactive medication was collected at the initial screening. We did not ask participants to withhold any medication use prior to scan. Medication status at the time (day) of scanning was not recorded.

We did not use any mock scan or additional preparation beyond standard written and verbal description at time of consent/assent, as well as verbal instructions prior to and during scan session. During MRI scanning, children with ASD were sedated using 50~80 mg/kg chloral hydrate. Chloral hydrate is conventionally used as a sedative and hypnotic pharmaceutical drug, which has a long history of safety and availability in infants and is used frequently for pediatric electroencephalography sedation. Sedation was performed by a trained and certified nurse following the guidelines and protocols established by the Radiology Sedation Committee of the hospital.  A caregiver was present for each participant during the scan.

All participants conducted MRI scans at the Radiology Department of Guangzhou Women and Children‘s Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University by using a 3.0 Tesla MR scanner (Ingenia CX; Philips Healthcare, Best, the Netherlands) with a 32-channel head coil. High-resolution MR data of the whole brain were acquired using a 3D T1 sequence with the following parameters: repetition time (TR) = 8.1 ms, echo time (TE) = 3.7 ms, matrix size = 256 x 240, flip angle (FA) = 8°, field of view (FOV) = 256 x 240 mm², voxel size = 1 x 1 x 1 mm³, and 160 axial slices;

a 3D T2 sequence with the following parameters: repetition time (TR) = 2500 ms, echo time (TE) = 247 ms, matrix size = 240 x 240, flip angle (FA) = 90°, field of view (FOV) = 240 x 240 mm², voxel size = 1 x 1 x 1 mm³, and 192 axial slices; （

a REST sequence with the following parameters: repetition time (TR) = 800 ms, echo time (TE) = 30 ms, matrix size = 92 x 93, flip angle (FA) = 52°, field of view (FOV) = 224 x 224 mm², voxel size = 1 x 1 x 1 mm³, and 60 axial slices.

a DTI sequence with the following parameters: repetition time (TR) =2726 ms, echo time (TE) = 75 ms, matrix size = 112 x 112, flip angle (FA) = 90°, field of view (FOV) = 224 x 224 mm², voxel size = 1 x 1 x 1 mm³, and 69 axial slices.

Xuntao Yin

We would like to thank all of the participants and their parents for their kind support throughout the course of this study.

• National Natural Science Foundation of China (52400247 & 82103794)
• China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2024M750966)
• Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation (2023A1515110220, 2022B1515130007)
• the Key-Area Research and Development Program of Guangdong Province (2019B030335001)
• National Social Science Foundation of China (20&ZD296).

Total:30（5.90~12.42 years）

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): 12 (5.90~10.05 years)

Typical Controls (TC): 18 (6.73~12.42 years)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

For the ASD group, each child had to present a diagnostic certificate from a reputable tertiary-level hospital. The diagnosis was further verified by two experienced psychiatrists (Dr. Jin Jing and Dr. Xin Wang). They assessed the children using the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Second Edition (ADOS-2), Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) and cross-referenced their findings with the criteria outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). This dual approach ensured that only children with consistent and confirmed ASD diagnoses were selected for our research. Children with dyslexia, seizures, head injuries, cerebral palsy, movement disorders, or other identified genetic or chromosomal disorders were excluded. To ensure study integrity, only the eldest eligible child from families with multiple candidates was selected for participation, thereby precluding familial confounds.

Typical Controls (TC)

Participants were recruited in the Guangzhou, Guangdong through advertisements. Typically developing children were screened and excluded if they or a first-degree relative had developmental, language, learning, neurological, psychiatric disorders, or psychiatric medication usage, or if the child met the any clinical criteria for the developmental and behavioral disorder.

Assessments and Procedures

Recruitment

See above. All participants/parents signed written consent/assent approved by the Institutional Review Board of the South China Normal University and conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Estimated IQ

The intelligence quotient for ASD and TC was obtained by using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition (WISC-IV).

Additional Questionnaires/Interviews

Participants underwent a battery of behavioral assessments including (1) Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS); (2) Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI)

Medication Information

Information regarding current psychoactive medication was collected at the initial screening. We did not ask participants to withhold any medication use prior to scan. Medication status at the time (day) of scanning was not recorded.

We did not use any mock scan or additional preparation beyond standard written and verbal description at time of consent/assent, as well as verbal instructions prior to and during scan session. During MRI scanning, children in the TD group were instructed to lie still and watch cartoons, whereas children with ASD were sedated using 50 mg/kg chloral hydrate. Chloral hydrate is conventionally used as a sedative and hypnotic pharmaceutical drug, which has a long history of safety and availability in infants and is used frequently for pediatric electroencephalography sedation. Sedation was performed by a trained and certified nurse following the guidelines and protocols established by the Radiology Sedation Committee of the hospital.  A caregiver was present for each participant during the scan.

The MRI data were acquired on a 3.0-T MRI scanner (SIGNA Premier , General Electric Healthcare, Milwaukee, WI, USA) with a 48-channel head coil. The subject’s head was immobilized with foam pillows inside the coil to diminish motion artifacts. For each subject, the sagittal three-dimensional T1-weighted fast spoiled gradient recalled echo (T1-FSPGR) sequence with 1.00 mm isotropic resolution was performed. Detailed scan parameters for the 3D T1WI sequence were as follows: repetition time (TR)/echo time (TE) = 7.2/3 ms; FA = 8; field of view (FOV) = 25.6cmx25.6cm; matrix size=256x256;voxel size = 1x1x1; Slice thickness = 1 mm; slices=188;Acceleration factor = 1.5; number of excitations (NEX) = 1. No fat saturation was applied.

Xuchu Weng, Jinhui Wang, Xin Wang, Ning Pan

Huafu Chen, Xujun Duan, Lei Li

None

• National Natural Science Foundation of China (81871432, 82121003, and 62036003)
• Fundamental Research Funds for Central Universities (ZYGX2019Z017)
• Innovation Team and Talents Cultivation Program of National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine (ZYYCXTD-D-202003)
• National Social Science Foundation of China (20&ZD296).

Total: 314 (2~8.7 years)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): 163 (2~8.7 years)

Typical Controls (TC): 151 (2~8.7 years)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Children with ASD received a diagnosis based on scores from the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) and/or the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS), and expert clinical judgment according to DSM-IV or DSM-5 criteria. Children with ASD-related medical conditions (e.g., Fragile-X syndrome, tuberous sclerosis), and other neurological conditions (e.g., epilepsy, Tourette's Syndrome) were excluded. 

Typical Controls (TC)

Participants were recruited in the Chengdu, Sichuan through advertisements. Typically developing children were screened and excluded if they or a first-degree relative had developmental, language, learning, neurological, psychiatric disorders, or psychiatric medication usage, or if the child met the clinical criteria for a childhood disorder on the Child Symptom Inventory-Fourth Edition or Child and Adolescent Symptom Inventory.

Assessments and Procedures

Recruitment

See above. All participants/parents signed written consent/assent approved by the Institutional Review Board of the University of Electronic Science and Technology of China and conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Estimated IQ

Estimates of intelligence for TC was obtained by using the subtests of the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence. Estimates of intelligence for ASD was obtained by using the fourth edition of Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT).

Additional Questionnaires/Interviews

Participants underwent a battery of behavioral assessments including (1) Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist (ATEC) (2) Autism Behavior Checklist (ABC) (3) Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) (4) Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) (5) Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS).

Medication Information

Information regarding current psychoactive medication was collected at the initial screening. We did not ask participants to withhold any medication use prior to scan. Medication status at the time (day) of scanning was not recorded.

We did not use any mock scan or additional preparation beyond standard written and verbal description at time of consent/assent, as well as verbal instructions prior to and during scan session. During MRI scanning, children in the TD group were instructed to lie still and watch cartoons, whereas children with ASD were sedated using 50 mg/kg chloral hydrate. Chloral hydrate is conventionally used as a sedative and hypnotic pharmaceutical drug, which has a long history of safety and availability in infants and is used frequently for pediatric electroencephalography sedation. Sedation was performed by a trained and certified nurse following the guidelines and protocols established by the Radiology Sedation Committee of the hospital.  A caregiver was present for each participant during the scan.

All participants conducted MRI scans at the MRI Research Center of University of Electronic Science and Technology of China by using a 3.0 Tesla GE DISCOVERY MR750 scanner (General Electric, Boston, MA, United states) with an eight-channel prototype quadrature birdcage head coil. High-resolution MR data of the whole brain were acquired using a 3D T1 sequence with the following parameters: repetition time (TR) = 6.02 ms, echo time (TE) = 1.96 ms, matrix size = 256 x 256, flip angle (FA) = 9°, field of view (FOV) = 256 x 256 mm², voxel size = 1 x 1 x 1 mm³, and 156 axial slices.

Tingyu Li; Jinhua Cai; Jie chen; Yin Xu; Ting Yang; Bin Qin; Longlun Wang; Ru Xue; Zudan Xie;

重庆市技术创新与应用发展专项重点项目，人口健康领域（项目编号：2022TIAD-KPX0014）；

国家儿童健康与疾病临床医学研究中心临床医学研究一般项目（项目编号：NCRCCHD-2022-GP-06）；

重庆市科卫联合面上项目（项目编号：渝卫发〔2022〕54号-2023MSXM134）；

广东省重点研发计划(项目编号：2018B030335001)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): 180 (2~7 years)

Typical Controls: 92 (2~8 years)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Inclusion as a participant with ASD required an experienced clinician's DSM-5 diagnosis of Autistic Disorder, supplemented by Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) and/or the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS).

Children were excluded from participation if there was an organic brain disorder, genetic or chromosomal abnormalities, or other neurological disorders (e.g. epilepsy, Tourette's Syndrome).

Medication Information

Information regarding current psychoactive medication was collected at the initial screening. We did not ask participants to withhold any medication use prior to scan. Medication status at the time (day) of scanning was not recorded.

Additional Questionnaires/Interviews

Participants underwent a battery of behavioral assessments including (1) Autism Behavior Checklist (ABC) (2) Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) (3) Gesell developmental scale (GDS)

Exclusion Criteria Common to all Participants

Children were excluded from participation if they experienced trauma at birth or had a history of a definitive neurologic disorder including seizures (except for uncomplicated brief febrile seizures), tumor, severe head injury, stroke or lesion. Additional common exclusion criteria included major visual or hearing impairments or conditions that contraindicate MRI (cardiac pacemaker, surgical clips in the brain or blood vessels, dental braces, etc.).

All participants/parents signed a written informed consent/assent form, approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Children’s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University. The whole research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

MRI Scan Preparation. We did not use any mock scan or additional preparation beyond standard written and verbal description when consent was obtained as well as verbal instructions prior to and during scan session.

MRI Scanning. All participants were given rectal chloral hydrate sedation for the scan. 

High-resolution MR data of the whole brain were acquired using a 3DT1 sequence with the following parameters.

Philips: repetition time (TR) = 7.7ms, echo time (TE) = 3.8ms; matrix size = 256 x 256; flip angle (FA) = 9°; field of view (FOV) = 256*256 mm²; voxel size = 1.1 x 1.1 x 1.1 mm³, and 156 axial slices.

GE750: repetition time (TR) = 8.22ms, echo time (TE) = 3.19ms; matrix size = 256 x 256; flip angle (FA) = 12°; field of view (FOV) = 256*256 mm²; voxel size = 1 x 1 x 1 mm³, and 164 axial slices.

Shijun Li

None

• National Natural Science Foundation of China [2012-31100714] [2020-81971603]
• Beijing Science and Technology New Star Program [2012] 2011112
• Beijing Natural Science Foundation [2016] 7162183
• Capital Health Development Research Project [2018] 201825012

Total: 285 (0~15.2 years)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): 186 (2~15.2years)

Typical Controls (TC): 99 (0~15.2 years)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Children with ASD received a diagnosis based on scores from of The diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), Autism Behavior Checklist (ABC) and Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS). In addition to these scales, some also received support diagnosis from Clancy Behavior Scale (CBS) or Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Second Edition (ADOS-2). Children with ASD were excluded if they suffered from hearing or visual impairment, or other neurological disorders that affect brain function.

Typical Controls (TC)

Participants were recruited in Beijing through advertisements. Typically developing children received behavioral assessment by multiple physicians. Typically developing children were excluded if they did not cooperate with MR scan, or revealed organic brain diseases by MR scan. The images of the typically developing children also were disused if there was obvious artifact.

Assessments and Procedures

Recruitment

See above. All participants/parents signed written consent/assent approved by the Institutional Review Board of Chinese PLA general hospital and conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Estimated IQ

None

Additional Questionnaires/Interviews

In addtion to the behavioral scales mentioned above, some of the participants underwent behavioral assessments including (1) Clancy Behavior Scale (CBS), (2) Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Second Edition (ADOS-2) and (3) Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS).

Medication Information

Information regarding current psychoactive medication was collected at the initial screening. We did not ask participants to withhold any medication use prior to scan. Medication status at the time (day) of scanning was not recorded.

We did not use any mock scan or additional preparation beyond standard written and verbal description at time of consent/assent, as well as verbal instructions prior to and during scan session. During MRI scanning, children in the TD group were instructed to lie still and watch cartoons, whereas children with ASD were sedated using 50 mg/kg chloral hydrate. Chloral hydrate is conventionally used as a sedative and hypnotic pharmaceutical drug, which has a long history of safety and availability in infants and is used frequently for pediatric electroencephalography sedation. Sedation was performed by a trained and certified nurse following the guidelines and protocols established by the Radiology Sedation Committee of the hospital.  A caregiver was present for each participant during the scan.

High-resolution MR data of the whole brain were acquired using a 3D T1 sequence with the following parameters: repetition time (TR) = 7.9 ms, echo time (TE) = MIN FULL, matrix size = 256 x 256, flip angle (FA) = 12°, field of view (FOV) = 256 x 256 mm², voxel size = 1 x 1 x 1 mm³, and 156 axial slices.

Jin Jing; Xiuhong Li; Lizi Lin

National Natural Science Foundation of China (81872639; 82103794)

Key-Area Research and Development Program of Guangdong Province (2019B030335001)

Total: 192 (2~12 years)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): 115 (2~12 years)

Typical Controls (TC)：77 (5~12 years）

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Inclusion as a participant with ASD required an experienced clinician's DSM-5 diagnosis of Autistic Disorder, supplemented by Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS). Since 2003, we have also used the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-2 (AODS-2) (n=14).

Children were excluded from participation if there was a organic brain disorder, genetic or chromosomal abnormalities, or other neurological disorders (e.g. epilepsy, Tourette's Syndrome).

Typical Controls (TC)

Control participants were openly recruited on the Internet via advertisements on Wechat in Guangdong Province. We screened and excluded participants if they were with developmental, language, learning, neurological or psychiatric disorders, or if they met clinical criteria for a childhood disorder from the DSM or the Child and Adolescent Symptom Checklist.

Assessments and Procedures

Recruitment

See above.

Estimated IQ

We obtained estimates of intelligence (total IQ) using the WAIS-III and WISC-III using the block design and vocabulary subtests.

Medication Information

Information regarding current psychoactive medication was collected at the initial screening. We did not ask participants to withhold any medication use prior to scan. Medication status at the time (day) of scanning was not recorded.

Additional Questionnaires/Interviews

We administered standardized questionnaires to further characterize participants with respect to various symptom domains, including: (1) Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ); (2) Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF); (3) Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS); (4) Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ); (5) Children’s Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ); (6) Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ).

Exclusion Criteria Common to all Participants

Children were excluded from participation if they experienced trauma at birth or had a history of a definitive neurologic disorder including seizures (except for uncomplicated brief febrile seizures), tumor, severe head injury, stroke or lesion. Additional common exclusion criteria included major visual or hearing impairments or conditions that contraindicate MRI (cardiac pacemaker, surgical clips in the brain or blood vessels, dental braces, etc.).

All participants/parents signed a written informed consent/assent form, approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Sun Yat-sen University. The whole research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

MRI Scan Preparation. We did not use any mock scan or additional preparation beyond standard written and verbal description when consent was obtained as well as verbal instructions prior to and during scan session.

MRI Scanning. During MRI scanning, children with ASD received oral chloral hydrate sedation for the scan, while children in the TD group were instructed to lie still and watch cartoons.

High-resolution MR data of the whole brain were acquired using a 3DT1 sequence with the following parameters: repetition time (TR) = 1800ms, echo time (TE) = 2.19ms; matrix size = 256 x 256; flip angle (FA) = 90°; field of view (FOV) = 256*256 mm²; voxel size = 1 x 1 x 1 mm³ , slice number=176 .

We also used BOLD sequence with the following scan parameters: TR = 2000 ms, TE = 30 ms, matrix size = 224 x 224, FA = 90 °, FOV = 224*224 mm², voxel size =3.5 x 3.5 x 3.5 mm³, slice number=32；

Yi Huang

Key R&D Project of Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China（2016YFC1306104)

Total: 130 (3~17 years)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): 65 (3~17 years)

Typical Controls (TC)：65 (5~14 years)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Children with ASD received a diagnosis based on scores from the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) and/or the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS), and expert clinical judgment according to DSM-5 criteria.

We excluded children with other nervous system disease (e.g., epilepsy, Tourette's Syndrome), or with definitive inherited metabolic diseases (e.g., Down's Syndrome, Fragile-X chromosome Syndrome, Angelman Syndrome, etc.). Further exclusion criteria included the use of neuropsychiatric drugs.

Typical Controls (TC)

Control participants were recruited through referrals from schools in Chengdu and our Mental Health Center websites, as well as word of mouth. Typical controls must have no family history of an ASD. Typical controls were matched at the group level to ASD relative to age, sex, handedness, and full-scale IQ, and had no self-reported history of ASD or any psychiatric or neurological condition.

Assessments and Procedures

Recruitment

See above.

Estimated IQ

We obtained estimates of intelligence (total, performance and verbal IQ) using the four subtests of the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI).

Handedness

Handedness was measured based on self-report.

Medication Information

We did not collect information on the use of psychoactive medications at the time of scanning.

Additional Questionnaires/Interviews

Participants underwent a battery of behavioral assessments including: (1)the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL); (2)the Family Assessment Device (FAD); (3)the Infants-Junior Middle School Students' Social-Life Abilities Scale (S-M); (4)the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI); (5) the Verbal Fluency Test (VF).

Exclusion Criteria Common to all Participants

Contraindications to MRI.

All participants/parents signed a written informed consent/assent form, approved by the Institutional Review Board of the West China Hospital of Sichuan University. The whole research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

MRI Scan Preparation. We did not use any mock scan or additional preparation beyond standard written and verbal description when consent was obtained as well as verbal instructions prior to and during scan session.

MRI Scanning. Children with ASD received oral chloral hydrate sedation for the scan. Children in the TC group were asked to lie still in the scanner, with their eyes closed, while staying awake.

High-resolution MR data of the whole brain were acquired using a 3D T1 sequence with the following parameters: repetition time (TR) = 6.02 ms, echo time (TE) = 3.7 ms, matrix size = 256 x 256, flip angle (FA) = 7°, field of view (FOV) = 256 x 256 mm^2., voxel size = 1 x 1 x 1 mm³, and 188 axial slices.

We also used BOLD sequence with the following scan parameters: GRE-EPI sequence, TR = 2000 ms, TE = 30 ms,  FA = 90 °, matrix size = 64 × 64, slice thickness = 4 mm, no gap, slices =38, FOV = 240 × 240 mm^2..

acquisition time = 8 min, the total whole brain images = 240.

Haoxiang Jiang, Miaoyan Wang, Dandan Xu

Wuxi Health Commission, Key Project of Precision Medicine (J202107) Youth Project (Q202275)

Total: 157 (1.1~10 years)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): 111 (1.8~10 years)

Typical Controls (TC): 46 (1.1~8 years)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Children with ASD received a diagnosis based on expert clinical judgment according to DSM-IV or DSM-5 criteria, and scores from Autism Behavior Checklist (ABC) or the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS).Children with ASD-related medical conditions (e.g., Fragile-X syndrome, tuberous sclerosis), and other neurological conditions (e.g., epilepsy, Tourette's Syndrome) were excluded.

Typical Controls (TC)

Information of Children who came to the hospital for physical examination (non-neurological diseases) were prospectively collected, and their neurological and imaging evaluations were evaluated normal.

Typically developing children were screened and excluded if they or a first-degree relative had developmental, language, learning, neurological, psychiatric disorders, or psychiatric medication usage, or if the child met the clinical criteria for a childhood disorder on the Child Symptom Inventory-Fourth Edition or Child and Adolescent Symptom Inventory.

Assessments and Procedures

Recruitment

See above.

Estimated IQ

We obtained estimates of intelligence (total, performance and verbal IQ) using the four subtests of the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI).

Handedness

Handedness was measured based on self-report.

Medication Information

We did not collect information on the use of psychoactive medications at the time of scanning.

Additional Questionnaires/Interviews

Participants underwent a battery of behavioral assessments including (1) Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist (ATEC) (2) Autism Behavior Checklist (ABC) (3) Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) (4) Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) (5) Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS).

Exclusion Criteria Common to all Participants

Contraindications to MRI.

All participants/parents signed a written informed consent/assent form, approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Wuxi Children's Hospital. The whole research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

MRI Scan Preparation. We did not use any mock scan or additional preparation beyond standard written and verbal description when consent was obtained as well as verbal instructions prior to and during scan session.

MRI Scanning.We would give children chloral hydrate to take for sedation for the scan if they did not cooperate with the examination. Chloral hydrate is conventionally used as a sedative and hypnotic pharmaceutical drug, which has a long history of safety and availability in infants and is used frequently for pediatric electroencephalography sedation. Sedation was performed by a trained and certified nurse following the guidelines and protocols established by the Radiology Sedation Committee of the hospital. A caregiver was present for each participant during the scan.

High-resolution MR data of the whole brain were acquired using a 3D T1W1 sequence with the following parameters: repetition time (TR) = 2200ms,echo time (TE) = 3.06 ms, thickness=1mm,

field of view (FOV) = 192×192 mm^2.

BOLD: repetition time (TR) =:2000 ms/, echo time (TE) = 25 ms ms,  field of view (FOV) = 192×192 mm², flip angle (FA) = 90°

Lijie Wu, Jia Wang

National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) (81302444)

Total: 84（2~8.7years）

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): 34（3~8years）

Typical Controls (TC)：50（2~8.7years）

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Children with ASD received a clinical review by two pediatricians or child psychiatrists at the associate director level or above, according to DSM-5 criteria and other scales such as the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS), the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADIR),The Childhood Autism Rating Scale(CARS), the Autism Behavior Checklist (ABC) and the Social Responsiveness Scales (SRS).

Children were excluded from participation if they met the following criteria: a.affected with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder(ADHD), mental retardation, etc; b. recently suffering from obvious head trauma; c.suffering from nervous system and other serious physical diseases; d.taking anti-epileptic, anticonvulsant drugs and other psychotropic drugs in the short term; e. incapable of effectively completing the experiment.

Typical Controls (TC)

Control participants were openly recruited through kindergartens in Harbin during the same period. The following inclusion criteria had to be met: no evidence of mental disorders, neurological disorders, and other somatic disorder; absence of obvious head trauma; no use of psychotropic drugs.

Assessments and Procedures

Recruitment

See above.

Estimated IQ

Intelligence was estimated with a reliable and valid three-subtest short form (Block Design, Vocabulary, and Information) of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition providing a total IQ score.

Handedness

Handedness was evaluated based on the Edinburgh handedness scale.

Medication Information

Information regarding current psychoactive medication was collected at the initial screening. We did not ask participants to withhold any medication use prior to scan. Medication status at the time (day) of scanning was not recorded.

Additional Questionnaires/Interviews

We administered standardized questionnaires to further characterize participants with respect to various symptom domains, including: (1)Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised(ADI-R); (2)Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule(ADOS); (3)Autism Behavior Checklist(ABC); (4)Childhood Autism Rating Scale(CARS); (5)Social Responsiveness Scale(SRS);  (6)The Autism Spectrum Quotient-Children’s Version,(AQ-Child);  (7) Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT).

Exclusion Criteria Common to all Participants

Contraindications to MRI.

All participants/parents signed a written informed consent/assent form, approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Harbin Medical University. The whole research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

MRI Scan Preparation. We did not use any mock scan or additional preparation beyond standard written and verbal description when consent was obtained as well as verbal instructions prior to and during scan session.

MRI Scanning. All participants were given rectal chloral hydrate sedation for the scan.  

High-resolution MR data of the whole brain were acquired using a 3DT1 sequence with the following parameters: 3D spoiled gradient•-recalled sequence; scanning azimuth :axial scanning; repetition time (TR) = 8.4ms (by default), echo time (TE) = 3.87ms (by default); flip angle=9°; field of view (FOV) = 256*256mm²; matrix size = 256*256; slice thickness = 1mm; slice gap = 0; number of slice = 176。

We also used BOLD sequence with the following scan parameters: a single-shot gradient-recalled echo-planar imaging sequence; TR = 2000 ms, TE = 30 ms, FA = 90 °, FOV=240*240mm², in-plane matrix=64*64, slice thickness = 3 mm, slice gap=1mm; number of slices=39; interlaced scanning; number of volumes=210.

Rong Zhang

Special Funds for Public Welfare Industry Research of National Committee of Health and Family Planning of China（2013-2002）

Major Science and Technology Project of Beijing（Z181100001518005）

The UULM– PUHSC Joint Center for Neuroscience Fund (BMU20160563)

Total: 126 (3~5.6 years)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): 97 (3~5.6 years)

Typical Controls (TC)：29 (4~5.6 years）

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Adult individuals were included if they had a documented clinical diagnosis according to DSM-IV-TR or ICD-10 criteria (F.84.5) supported by the Autism Diagnostic Interview Revised (ADI-R). In addition to expert clinical evaluation, autistic traits were quantified by administration of the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS), the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS), and the Autism Behavior Checklist (ABC).

Individuals with secondary autism related to a specific etiology such as tuberous sclerosis or Fragile X syndrome were excluded. Participants were also free of a definitive neurological disorder (e.g. epilepsy, Tourette's Syndrome).

Typical Controls (TC)

Control participants were openly recruited through a variety of methods including the dissemination of flyers throughout the greater Beijing area (via kindergartens, community/youth organizations, etc), as well as through radio ads, and word of mouth.

We had a face to face screen to our participants and excluded those if they were with developmental, language, learning, neurological or psychiatric disorders, or if they met clinical criteria for a childhood disorder from the DSM or the Child and Adolescent Symptom Checklist.

Assessments and Procedures

Recruitment

See above.

Estimated IQ

We obtained estimates of intelligence (total IQ) using the WAIS-III and WISC-III using the block design and vocabulary subtests.

Medication Information

Information regarding current psychoactive medication was collected at the initial screening. We did not ask participants to withhold any medication use prior to scan. Medication status at the time (day) of scanning was not recorded.

Additional Questionnaires/Interviews

We administered standardized questionnaires to further characterize participants with respect to various symptom domains, including:

(1) the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS); (2)the Autism Diagnostic Interview Revised (ADI-R); (3)the Autism Behavior Checklist (ABC); (4)the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS); (5)The Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R); (6)the Beijing Autism Subtyping Questionnaire (BASQ).

Exclusion Criteria Common to all Participants

Participants were excluded if there was a chronic medical illness, a metabolic disorder or an abnormal neurological examination, if ASD was associated with a genetic syndrome or if conventional MRI was found to be abnormal.

All participants/parents signed a written informed consent/assent form, approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Peking University (PU IRB). It was a study on behavioral, biological and brain imaging characteristics of autistic children with different types of social interaction (Ethics Code: IRB00001052-20005)

MRI Scan Preparation. We did not use any mock scan or additional preparation beyond standard written and verbal description when consent was obtained as well as verbal instructions prior to and during scan session.

MRI Scanning. During MRI scanning, all participants received oral chloral hydrate sedation for the scan.

Structural imaging was performed by using Ax FSPGER BRAVO sequence with the following parameters: repetition time =8.2, echo time = 3.2, flip angle = 9°,  bandwidth = 31.25,  field of view = 25.6cm, in-plane resolution = 1×1 mm, slice thickness = 1mm, 192 slices, prep time = 600，about 5minutes).

Wei Wang; Aiguo Chen

The National Natural Science Foundation of China (31771243)

The Fok Ying Tung Education Foundation (141113)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): 141 (3~12 years)

(No Typical Controls)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Inclusion as a participant with ASD required an experienced clinician's DSM-5 diagnosis of Autistic Disorder, supplemented by Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS).

Children were excluded from participation if there was a organic brain disorder, genetic or chromosomal abnormalities, or other neurological disorders (e.g. epilepsy, Tourette's Syndrome).

Estimated IQ

We obtained estimates of intelligence (total IQ) using the WAIS-III and WISC-III using the block design and vocabulary subtests.

Medication Information

Information regarding current psychoactive medication was collected at the initial screening. We did not ask participants to withhold any medication use prior to scan. Medication status at the time (day) of scanning was not recorded.

Additional Questionnaires/Interviews

We administered standardized questionnaires to further characterize participants with respect to various symptom domains, including: (1)The Social Responsiveness Scale, Second Edition (SRS-2); (2)The Repetitive Behavior Scale–Revised (RBS-R); (3)The Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI); (4)The Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ); (5)The Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ).

Exclusion Criteria Common to all Participants

Children were excluded from participation if they experienced trauma at birth or had a history of a definitive neurologic disorder including seizures (except for uncomplicated brief febrile seizures), tumor, severe head injury, stroke or lesion. Additional common exclusion criteria included major visual or hearing impairments or conditions that contraindicate MRI (cardiac pacemaker, surgical clips in the brain or blood vessels, dental braces, etc.).

All participants/parents signed a written informed consent/assent form, approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Yangzhou University. The whole research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

MRI Scan Preparation. We did not use any mock scan or additional preparation beyond standard written and verbal description when consent was obtained as well as verbal instructions prior to and during scan session.

MRI Scanning. All participants were given rectal chloral hydrate sedation for the scan. 

High-resolution MR data of the whole brain were acquired using a 3DT1 sequence with the following parameters: repetition time (TR) = 7.2ms, echo time (TE) = 3.06ms; matrix size = 256 x 256; flip angle (FA) = 12°; field of view (FOV) = 256*256 mm²; voxel size = 1 x 1 x 1 mm³ , and 166 axial slices.

For the BOLD, we used GRE-EPI sequence with the following scan parameters: TR = 2000 ms, TE = 30ms, matrix size = 64 x 64, FA = 90 °, slice thickness = 4mm; no gap; FOV = 224*224 mm² ；slice number (3-6years) =28, slice number (7-12years) =32；the number of total whole brain images = 240.

Feiyong Jia; Yang Xue; Tiantian Wang, ChunYue Miao

None

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): 488 (2~15 years)

Typical Controls: 8 (2~5 years)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Inclusion as a participant with ASD required an experienced clinician's DSM-5 diagnosis of Autistic Disorder, supplemented by Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS).

Children were excluded from participation if there was an organic brain disorder, genetic or chromosomal abnormalities, or other neurological disorders (e.g. epilepsy, Tourette's Syndrome).

Medication Information

Information regarding current psychoactive medication was collected at the initial screening. We did not ask participants to withhold any medication use prior to scan. Medication status at the time (day) of scanning was not recorded.

Additional Questionnaires/Interviews

We administered standardized questionnaires to further characterize participants with respect to various symptom domains, including: Child Behavior Checklist CBCL/Autism Behavior Checklist ABC /screening tool for autism in toddlers and young children STAT/ATEC; griffiths development scales-chinese language edition GDS-C；

Exclusion Criteria Common to all Participants

Children were excluded from participation if they experienced trauma at birth or had a history of a definitive neurologic disorder including seizures (except for uncomplicated brief febrile seizures), tumor, severe head injury, stroke or lesion. Additional common exclusion criteria included major visual or hearing impairments or conditions that contraindicate MRI (cardiac pacemaker, surgical clips in the brain or blood vessels, dental braces, etc.).

All participants/parents signed a written informed consent/assent form, approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Jilin University. The whole research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

MRI Scan Preparation. We did not use any mock scan or additional preparation beyond standard written and verbal description when consent was obtained as well as verbal instructions prior to and during scan session.

MRI Scanning. All participants were given rectal chloral hydrate sedation for the scan. 

High-resolution MR data of the whole brain were acquired using a 3DT1 sequence with the following parameters: repetition time (TR) = 6.7ms, echo time (TE) = 3.06ms; matrix size = 240 x 240; flip angle (FA) = 8°; field of view (FOV) = 240*240 mm²; voxel size = 1 x 1 x 1 mm³ , and 152 axial slices.